From Gaze to Agency: Key Terms in Women in World Cinema

Written by Tanveer Anoy

Cinema has always been a space of storytelling, but it has also been a space of exclusion for much of its history. As someone who has spent years exploring feminist film theory and transnational cinema and who recently taught a course titled Women in World Cinema, I have come to realize that the language we use to analyze films is just as crucial as the films themselves. Understanding terms like the male gaze (Mulvey, 1975), intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989), or postcolonial feminism (Mohanty, 1988) allows us to see beyond the surface of a film and critically engage with how power operates on-screen.

This blog post serves as a resource for students, researchers, and film lovers who want to deepen their understanding of feminist and transnational film theories. Whether you’re writing an essay, engaging in a discussion, or simply reflecting on your favorite films, these terms will help you articulate the ways in which cinema shapes—and is shaped by—gender, race, and power. Here are some essential terms:

The Male Gaze (Mulvey, 1975)

The male gaze refers to how mainstream cinema positions women as objects of heterosexual male desire. Coined by Laura Mulvey in her seminal essay Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1975), this concept explains how women are frequently filmed in ways that emphasize their passivity and sexual appeal, reinforcing patriarchal ideologies (Mulvey, 1975).

Example: In Bend It Like Beckham (2002), the protagonist Jess resists the male gaze by defining herself through sports rather than through romantic or sexual appeal.

The Oppositional Gaze (hooks, 1992)

While Mulvey’s theory highlights how women are objectified in film, bell hooks introduced the oppositional gaze as a way for Black women and other marginalized spectators to resist dominant cinematic representations (hooks, 1992). Hooks argues that Black audiences often engage in critical viewing, rejecting the limited and racist depictions of Black women on-screen.

Example: Pariah (2011) directly challenges mainstream depictions of Black queer women by telling the story from a Black lesbian perspective, centering her agency rather than catering to white or male audiences.

Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989)

Coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw, intersectionality describes how race, gender, class, sexuality, and other identities intersect to shape oppression and privilege (Crenshaw, 1989). In film, intersectional analysis critiques one-dimensional portrayals of women that fail to consider how multiple forms of discrimination operate at once.

Example: Fancy Dance (2023) explores how Indigenous women experience both gendered and colonial violence, reflecting an intersectional approach to storytelling.

Transnational Feminism (Grewal & Kaplan, 1994)

Transnational feminism critiques Western-centric approaches to women’s rights and focuses on global feminist struggles. It examines how migration, globalization, and diaspora shape gendered experiences, emphasizing that feminism must be understood across cultural and national boundaries (Grewal & Kaplan, 1994).

Example: The Farewell (2019) illustrates transnational feminist concerns by showing how cultural expectations for women differ between China and the U.S., shaping the protagonist’s identity.

Postcolonial Feminism (Mohanty, 1988)

Postcolonial feminism critiques both colonial histories and the failures of Western feminism to recognize the specific struggles of women in formerly colonized regions. It challenges the assumption that all women share the same oppression, instead emphasizing the impact of imperialism on gender and race (Mohanty, 1988).

Example: Charulata (1964) critiques how colonialism shaped gender roles in Bengal, exploring the contradictions between intellectual freedom and social restrictions imposed on women.

Decolonial Feminism (Lugones, 2010)

Decolonial feminism challenges Western knowledge systems and centers Indigenous, Afro-diasporic, and non-Western feminist perspectives (Lugones, 2010). It promotes alternative ways of storytelling that dismantle Eurocentric narratives and resist capitalist feminism.

Example: Kumu Hina (2014) embodies decolonial feminist storytelling by foregrounding Indigenous understandings of gender.

Feminist Counter-Cinema (Kaplan, 1983)

Feminist counter-cinema challenges mainstream Hollywood storytelling by rejecting linear narratives, character development norms, and conventional “male gaze” framing (Kaplan, 1983). Instead, it embraces fragmented storytelling, experimental cinematography, and feminist aesthetics.

Example: 52 Tuesdays (2013) disrupts conventional narrative structures by filming only on Tuesdays, paralleling the protagonist’s transition.

Neoliberal Feminism (Banet-Weiser, 2018)

Neoliberal feminism promotes individual success and empowerment while ignoring systemic oppression (Banet-Weiser, 2018). In film, neoliberal feminism is seen in “girlboss” narratives where a white, middle-class protagonist “breaks barriers” without addressing deeper structural inequalities.

Example: Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022) critiques neoliberal feminism by showing how capitalism and generational trauma affect women’s labor and self-worth.

Misogynoir (Moya Bailey, 2010)

Coined by Moya Bailey, misogynoir describes the specific discrimination Black women face at the intersection of race and gender, particularly in media representation (Bailey, 2010). Unlike general misogyny or racism, misogynoir uniquely impacts Black women through harmful stereotypes, exclusion, and erasure.

Example: The lack of Black women protagonists in mainstream feminist films, or their portrayal through harmful stereotypes (e.g., the sassy best friend or the strong Black woman trope), reflects misogynoir.

Heteropatriarchy (Andrea Smith, 2006)

A socio-political system where cisgender, heterosexual men hold dominance over others, reinforcing gender and sexual oppression (Smith, 2006). Heteropatriarchy enforces heteronormative family structures and limits gender expression beyond the male/female binary.

Example: Monsoon Wedding (2001) critiques heteropatriarchy by exposing gender-based violence within traditional South Asian family structures and how women are expected to conform to rigid gender roles.

Horizontal Hostility (Marilyn Frye, 1983)

Horizontal hostility occurs when members of marginalized groups police, criticize, or attack each other rather than confronting the larger oppressive system (Frye, 1983). It is often caused by internalized oppression and competition for limited resources or recognition.

Example: Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022) explores horizontal hostility in mother-daughter relationships as Joy struggles against her mother’s internalized expectations of success and gender roles.

Orientalism in Film (Edward Said, 1978)

Derived from Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978), this concept critiques how Western cinema portrays the East (Middle East, South Asia, East Asia) as exotic, dangerous, or inferior. Orientalist depictions often involve hypersexualized women, oppressive cultures, or mysterious “Other” landscapes (Said, 1978).

Example: A Girl Walks Home Alone at Night (2014) challenges Orientalist portrayals of Iranian women by presenting a complex, feminist, and subversive female vampire character rather than a passive victim.

Two-Spirit (1990, Indigenous Communities)

A term used by Indigenous communities to describe gender identities outside the Western binary. Two-Spirit is an umbrella term that includes various Indigenous gender identities, often incorporating both masculine and feminine traits. It is not interchangeable with transgender, as it is rooted in specific Indigenous cultural traditions.

Example: Kumu Hina (2014) centers on the Two-Spirit identity within Native Hawaiian culture, challenging colonial gender binaries and reinforcing Indigenous understandings of gender fluidity.

Feminist & Gender Theory Terms

Complicity – Collusion or partnership in wrongdoing, such as the oppression of a target group. Social critic Kate Millett defines complicity as the act of “identifying—even if involuntarily or momentarily—with the society which force has brought into being.”
Compulsory Heterosexuality – The assumption that women are “naturally” or innately drawn sexually and emotionally toward men, and men toward women. Coined by Adrienne Rich, this term critiques how heterosexuality is reinforced as the default norm.
Difference – A characteristic that distinguishes one person from another or from an assumed/mythical “norm.” It can refer to racial, gender, class, or sexual differences that shape identity and social positioning.
Gender – A social construct based on the shaping of femininity and masculinity norms, defining what it means to be a “woman” or “man” in a particular cultural context.
Girls/Women – This term includes, but is not limited to, gender-nonconforming girls/women, non-binary femmes, trans girls/women, cisgendered girls/women, hijras, butches, and other marginalized genders.
Homophobia – Irrational thoughts, feelings, or actions based on fear, dislike, judgment, or hatred of non-heterosexual (LGBTQIA2S+) people.
Misogyny – The hatred, dislike, or devaluation of women and the feminine.
Mythical Norm – A dominant social ideal that is often unspoken yet reinforced, typically: white, middle or upper class, male, heterosexual, able-bodied, and Christian. Coined by Audre Lorde, this term highlights the invisibility of privilege in dominant narratives.
Oppression – A systemic imbalance of power where privileged groups participate in maintaining social hierarchies, even if they are not overtly discriminatory.
Patriarchy – A system where men hold primary power, especially in social, political, and economic structures.
The Personal is Political – A core feminist concept emphasizing that personal experiences of oppression (such as domestic violence, wage gaps, and reproductive rights) are directly linked to larger political and structural issues.
Prejudice – Preconceived judgments without adequate information or based on inaccurate assumptions.
Privilege – A set of unearned advantages that people hold by virtue of their social status, often invisible to those who benefit from it (e.g., white privilege, male privilege, cisgender privilege).
Social Justice – A system of laws, behaviors, and attitudes promoting equal rights and fair treatment for all members of society.
Stereotype – A generalized belief, image, or distorted truth about a person or group that allows little room for individual differences.
Transmisogyny – The specific discrimination and violence directed toward trans women and feminine-presenting nonbinary people, often reinforcing sexism and transphobia simultaneously.
Transphobia – Discrimination against transgender people based on their gender identity and/or expression.

Understanding these key feminist, transnational, and postcolonial film terms allows us to engage with cinema beyond mere entertainment—it helps us recognize who is represented, how, and why. By applying feminist, transnational, and decolonial frameworks to film, we move towards critical spectatorship, where we question whose stories are told and who controls the narrative.

Works Cited:

Bailey, M. (2010). Misogynoir: The unique discrimination faced by Black women.
Banet-Weiser, S. (2018). Empowered: Popular feminism and popular misogyny.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics.
Frye, M. (1983). The politics of reality: Essays in feminist theory.
Grewal, I., & Kaplan, C. (1994). Scattered hegemonies: Postmodernity and transnational feminist practices.
hooks, b. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation.
Kaplan, E. A. (1983). Women and film: Both sides of the camera.
Lugones, M. (2010). Toward a decolonial feminism.
Millett, K. (1970). Sexual politics.
Mohanty, C. T. (1988). Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses.
Mulvey, L. (1975). Visual pleasure and narrative cinema.
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence.
Said, E. (1978). Orientalism.
Smith, A. (2006). Heteropatriarchy and the three pillars of white supremacy: Rethinking women of color organizing.